Councils
UNIT 7: THE COUNCILS
Objective: Students should be able to give date and name to all seven councils, to name the major players in each and to understand the major debates and heresies, and to discuss the decisions reached and their importance.
The teacher can divide the councils into weeks as fits the schedule of the class, since this 3-week unit is really a single lesson. One method would be to have each student research a single council and report to the class. Another would be to present the material in class, with much drill and quizzing. This is “boring” material but absolutely essential to understand the Orthodox Church even today. And, while many of the details argued about seem "obvious" to us, many centuries later, in that day people really cared about the truth. Many people today don't even believe there is a truth! The Church has always been the source of truth, unchanging, sometimes having to be sought for, but solid rock instead of the shifting sand of public opinion.
First review the two councils already studied: the Council of Jerusalem in the first century and the Council of Nicea in 325 AD. Who presided over each? Who was present? What was decided? Do Christians always agree about everything? Even as early as the first century there was disagreement – but one Church. Look again at the decision-making process, a council of all bishops, protecting the Church from the thoughts of any one man.
Historical background: Each of these councils did not occur in a vacuum. What was happening in the world and in the Church at the time of each council? Be sure to have maps handy for discussion of the various cities and nations.
Historical background: Each of these councils did not occur in a vacuum. What was happening in the world and in the Church at the time of each council? Be sure to have maps handy for discussion of the various cities and nations.
1st Council: Constantine the Great had just united the Empire, made Christianity legal, and moved the capital to Constantinople. But he found the Church involved in a huge dispute caused by the teachings of a priest named Arius. The Emperor himself called the Council and presided over it in order to reunite His new Church. We already studied the Council of Nicea, or perhaps better called the “first council of Nicea” in our lesson on St. Athanasius and the Creed.
2nd Council: After the death of Constantine, his son Constantius tried to bring back Arianism;,and,after Constantius, Emperor Julian (the Apostate) tried actually to bring
back paganism! He had studied with Basil the Great and Gregory Nazianzus, but now ridiculed Christianity. Instead of killing Christians, Julian tried to tempt them away from their faith – offering favors and privileges to those who would denounce Christianity. He closed Christian Churches and schools, but died fighting the Persians after a short reign. Two brothers followed, Valens in the East and Valentinian in the West. Valens was an Arian, Valentinian Orthodox. They were succeeded by Theodosios. Emperor Theodosios declared Christianity to be the official religion of the Empire. He found the Church’s disputes dividing his empire. He called the 2nd Council to try to confirm the Nicene Creed in the face of the teachings of Macedonius, who was teaching that the Holy Spirit was inferior to the Father and the Son, a new heresy. He is known as Theodosios the Great – a professional soldier but a humble Christian, and the last ruler of a united Empire of East and West. He chose St. Gregory of Nazianzus, close friend of St. Basil the Great and St. Gregory of Nyssa (this trio is known as what? The Cappadocian Fathers) to preside. St. Gregory of Nazianzus had earlier discussed the audacity of men to try to tear apart the mystery of the Holy Trinity, one God in 3 Persons, saying, “The Holy Spirit, who proceeds from the Father. Because he proceeds from that source, he is no creature. And because he is not begotten, he is no son…What then is procession? Tell me what the unbegottenness of the Father is, and I will explain to you the physiology of the generation of the Son and the procession of the Spirit, and we shall both of us be frenzy-stricken for prying into the mystery of God! And who are we to do these things, we who cannot even see what lies at our feet or number the sand of the sea, or the drops of rain, or the days of eternity, much less enter into the depths of God and supply an account of that nature that is so unspeakable and transcending all words?” This was a very different group of bishops from the earlier council at Nicea. The confessors had gone to be with their Lord. These were bishops raised in the tumult of constant theological disputes, but with no parliamentary procedure to guide them. Discussions were long and heated. As observed by WB Bolmer in his history of the Western Church, “remember that these were assemblies in which men came together to pronounce judgment upon questions which to them were of paramount importance, upon which they had meditated till the dizzy brain fled from thought, and which they had defended with all their best powers for perhaps two generations; and that these assemblies were not managed according to any clearly-defined system.” Despite the difficulties, and refuting the “frenzy” of Macedonius, this council finished the creed we know today, adding almost an entire paragraph. And, while this council was attended almost exclusively by Eastern bishops, the Western empire being in a state of war on all fronts, the “revised” creed was adopted throughout the re-unified empire, an empire unified under Theodosius but soon to be divided again politically.
3rd Council: In trying to stamp out Arian teachings, Bishop Apollinarius of Laodicea stated that Christ was really God and only needed a body to appear to men. Thus, Christ’s human nature was unimportant. This heresy was called Apollinarianism. One step further – Bishop Nestorius of Constantinople said that, in that case, Mary wasn’t the mother of His divine (and more important) nature, she was only the mother of His body – Christotokos instead of Theotokos. Bishop Cyril of Alexandria vehemently opposed this interpretation. Emperor Theodosius II called the 3rd Council to settle this issue. Ephesus was chosen as its site – readily accessible by land and by sea, a city where Mary herself had lived with the Apostle John. Representatives from all 5 patriarchates were present – Nestorius himself being patriarch of Constantinople and Cyril patriarch of Alexandria. Since Nestorius was the accused, and Patriarch Celestine of Rome had sent representatives but had not come himself, Cyril of Alexandria, 3rd in honor of the ancient patriarchates, became the head of the assembly. In an action later felt to be unfair by many, he started the proceedings immediately and within a day had the approval of all but 2 of the representatives present. However, John of Antioch, an opponent of Cyril, was late and missed the vote altogether. The heresies of both Apollinarius and Nestorius were condemned. Also very important was the statement that there could be no further changes to the creed without a full Ecumenical Council – a statement that later was involved in the split of the church of Rome from the other 4 Patriarchates when the word “filioque” or “and the son” in Latin was added to the creed by Rome. Was the decision of the council accepted with peace and harmony? Riots in the streets met the “unfairness” of the vote, taken without the delegation from Antioch, with each party excommunicating the other. But, with the intervention of the emperor, and about 2 years after the end of the council, Cyril of Alexandria and John of Antioch were reconciled, both agreeing to the decisions of the council.
4th Council: Now the school of Alexandria, in a reaction to the Nestorians, decided that the divine nature of Christ was His only nature. The major proponent of this idea was a monk named Eutyches. Now Eutyches had already been denounced by Flavian of Constantinople and Domnus of Antioch. This heresy was called Monophysitism (“mono” meaning “one” and “phys” meaning “nature”). Eutyches was called to a council at which he was condemned, whereupon, he called upon Alexandria to call another “Robber Council” in Ephesus, where only his supporters were invited and orthodox bishops and the letter from Leo of Rome was not allowed to be read. Of course, this group accepted the teachings of Eutyches. Not only that, but riot and disorder were everywhere; Flavian of Constantinople was so badly beaten that he died a few days later. The Bishop of Rome, Leo the Great, asked the Emperor Theodosius the Younger to call yet another council. But, Theodosius would not listen; he believed with Eutyches although his wife, Pulcheria, was Orthodox. All was lost? No indeed! A stumbling horse can kill even an emperor, and Pulcheria, now queen, chose Marcian as her husband, both king and queen now staunchly orthodox. When Leo approached Pulcheria and Marcian, a new council was set, this time in Chalcedon, a suburb of Constantinople, chosen to be able to keep an imperial eye on the proceedings and to keep order. The council accepted the “Tome” of Pope Leo the Great of Rome which affirmed the belief that Jesus was one and the same son, perfect in Godhood and perfect in manhood, “truly God and truly man.” How was this great decision of the church made? The holy Great Martyr Euphemia (September 16) suffered martyrdom in the city of Chalcedon in the year 304, during the time of the persecution against Christians by the emperor Diocletian (284-305). One and a half centuries later, at a time when the Christian Church had become victorious within the Roman Empire, God deigned that Euphemia the All-Praised should again be a witness and confessor of the purity of the Orthodox teaching. Her relics rested in the city of Chalcedon. As the Council of Chalcedon met, after prolonged discussions the two sides could not come to a decisive agreement. The holy Patriarch Anatolius of Constantinople proposed that the Council submit the decision of the Church dispute to the Holy Spirit, through His undoubted bearer St Euphemia the All-Praised, whose wonderworking relics had been discovered during the Council's discussions. The Orthodox hierarchs and their opponents wrote down their confessions of faith on separate scrolls and sealed them with their seals. They opened the tomb of the holy Great Martyr Euphemia and placed both scrolls upon her bosom. Then, in the presence of the emperor Marcian, the participants of the Council sealed the tomb, putting on it the imperial seal and setting a guard to watch over it for three days. During these days both sides imposed upon themselves strict fast and made intense prayer. After three days the patriarch and the emperor in the presence of the Council opened the tomb with its relics: the scroll with the Orthodox confession was held by St Euphemia in her right hand, and the scroll of the heretics lay at her feet. St Euphemia, as though alive, raised her hand and gave the scroll to the patriarch. After this miracle many of the hesitant accepted the Orthodox confession. At the emperor’s insistence, and with reluctance, the council issued a decree of faith, reaffirming the creed of Nicea and the decisions of the previous councils. What but the Holy Spirit could have caused the needle of the compass to point to the truth in the midst of such discord?
But, even after the council at Chalcedon condemned Monophysitism, Jerusalem, Antioch, and Alexandria continued to support the one nature of Christ. The emperor Zeno attempted a compromise in an Act of Union called the “Henoticon” but it was rejected by both sides. To this day, the Armenian, Coptic (Egyptian), and several smaller Churches remain Monophysite. And, the Patriarch of Rome, angry over his role in the Henoticon, excommunicated the Patriarch of Constantinople; in retaliation, the Patriarch of Constantinople refused to mention Rome in his prayers. This further division between East and West lasted until the reign of Justinian.
5th Council: A series of weak emperors followed and Rome fell to the barbarians. Finally, in 527 AD, Justinian took the throne. He is known as Justinian the Great and succeeded in conquering back large areas of the Western Empire and uniting the Church. He called the 5th Council in hopes of ending once and for all the Monophysite and Nestorian controversies. Justinian had already circulated among the bishops early writings of Theodore of Mopsuestia, Theodoret of Cyrus, and Ibas of Edessa – writings that clearly did not agree with the decisions of the last council at Chalcedon. Emperors meddling again in church affairs? Many bishops signed these “Three Chapters” rejecting the heretical writings. But, many felt it was unnecessary to further anathematize these men, now dead, when Chalcedon had answered the questions. Finally, a council was called by the emperor. 165 bishops from the east attending, including 5 from Africa, but none from the West. The Council condemned the teachings of three Nestorian bishops – Theodore of Mopsuestia, Theodoret of Cyrus and Ibas if Edessa, although these bishops were, by that time, all deceased, and at least Theodoret had repented after the Council of Chalcedon and admitted his previous error. It confirmed the decision of the preceding councils on Monophysitism. But, as noted above, a few churches, the largest of which was Alexandria in Egypt, refused to give up their cherished beliefs. To this day, the Coptic Church in Egypt, the Armenian Orthodox Church, and the Jacobite Churches in Syria remain Monophysite.
6th Council: After Justinian came a series of weak Emperors, leading to a dangerous situation with the Persians on the East. They saw a potential target in the weakened empire with small army, bankrupt treasury, and poor government. They captured Antioch and Jerusalem; even the cross found by Helen was taken back to Persia. Then they took Alexandria and Egypt. They were at the doors of Constantinople itself. Emperor Heraclius took the throne; he was popular and a strong ruler and general. He defeated the Persians near the old city of Ninevah (Remember Ninevah, capital of Assyria, from the story of Jonah?) and all lands were given back. The cross made a triumphal reentry into Jerusalem in 630 AD. Perhaps such a popular emperor would be able to also bring back into the church the Monophysites, still the predominant belief in Africa? The idea of “Monothelitism”, Jesus had two natures but one will, was suggested as a compromise. Patriarch Sergius of Constantinople wrote the “Ecthesis” – a demonstration of the truth of Monothelitism, and Emperor Heraclius announced to all that they must believe that Jesus had two natures but only one will. Of course, one has only to look at the prayer of our Lord in the Garden of Gethsemane to realize that Jesus indeed had two wills, “not my will but Thine be done”, although many decades of argument and discussion were brought to bear on the subject. When his grandson, Constans, came to power, he even issued a decree called the “Type” which forbade people to even talk about the will of Jesus, as if by issuing a decree anyone can force people to silence. The Type only fanned the flames of disagreement. In the court of Constantinople, a prominent official, Maximus, left to become a monk and traveled through African and to Rome to defend the TWO natures of Jesus very ably. The Pope, or Patriarch of Rome, was now firmly opposed to the Patriarch of Constantinople and each anathematized the other. Is it any wonder, with such precedents, that, when the Great Schism occurred, everyone expected it to cool off and settle down? In fact, the Pope Martin I called the first “Lateran Council,” council held on papal territory, and had 105 Western bishops in attendance to defeat Monothelitism. Did Constantinople take this presumption of the West to call its own Council quietly? Indeed not, since poor Martin, elderly and sick, was whisked off to exile, and Maximus was scourged, and had his tongue and right hand cut off. But, soon Constantine the Bearded took the throne in Constantinople. He invited Rome to join with the Eastern bishops to reunite the church. Of course, as emperor, HE would preside over the proceedings. Almost 200 bishops attended, although Jerusalem and Alexandria were represented only by 2 priests. Pope Agatho sent a letter with two bishops and a deacon. Remind you of Pope Leo and his “Tome”? The 6th Council took months of laborious discussion to come to the decision that Jesus did, indeed, have two wills, the human and the divine, Finally, the heresy called “Monothelitism”, an offshoot of Monophysitism, was condemned and has over the centuries, disappeared.
7th Council: While God forbade the Jewish people from making images to worship and many early Christian worshippers, converted from idolatry in Greek or Roman temples, were for obvious reasons opposed to making images that might be mistaken for the gods they had left behind, God in the person of our Lord Jesus humbled Himself to appear in human form. So, from its earliest days, Christians made pictures of Jesus, Mary, and important events in Christian history. They drew them on the walls of their tombs, deep in the catacombs under the city of Rome. They drew on the walls of their churches and monasteries. Most people could not read in those days. They did not worship these pictures but used them as “windows to heaven” – to remember the life of Jesus, His teachings, and the lives and teachings of His holy ones, the saints. Indeed, most people could not read but could learn from the paintings of icons, as well as with the spoken word from the pulpit and the music of the church. St. Luke even painted a picture of the Virgin Mary and gave it to her; this icon was passed down in the church and resided in Constantinople. The monks were especially devoted to the veneration of icons. But, in 730 AD, Emperor Leo, a general who had protected Constantinople from the enemy’s fleets, prohibited the use of icons and ordered them taken down. He, and later his son, another Constantine, burned the monasteries and killed the monks and looted the churches, trying to destroy all the icons. Icons were hidden to keep them safe. Both Germanus, patriarch of Constantinople, and Gregory II, Pope of Rome, refused to obey the edicts of the emperors and a council was held in Rome to confirm the continued use of icons in the churches by Pope Gregory III.
At this time, there lived in Damascus, a city under the rule of an Arab caliph (or king), a man named John; we know him now as John of Damascus. John was wise and charming; soon he was the caliph’s second-in-command. The caliph was a Moslem, but John was a Christian. John taught and wrote about his love of icons. Emperor Leo did not like this and tried to have John killed. He told lies to the caliph, saying John was going to betray him to the Greeks, and the caliph believed Leo. He had John’s hand cut off. John prayed and his hand was healed! Then John left the palace and went to live in a monastery. There he wrote many hymns and prayers and even invented the series of eight tones for singing we use today in church.
The son of Leo, Constantine V (also called Constantine Copronymus, or Constantine “dung-named”), even called a council to which he invited only iconoclast bishops and not a single patriarch! After this fake council approved his iconoclasm, he went to great lengths to even paint over every icon in the churches. The common people were appalled! But, Constantine V was succeeded by his son, Leo IV, also a committed iconoclast but married to Irene of Greece, a supporter of the monks and of the icons. When her husband Leo died after only 5 years as ruler, Irene became Empress as regent for their 10-year-old son.
Finally, in 787 AD, the Empress Irene called for a council of the bishops. This was the seventh and last church council. It was held in the city of Nicea. 375 bishops attended with patriarchates and Rome represented. The church stood firmly for bringing the icons back! The pronouncement of the council was that, “venerable and holy images are to be dedicated in the holy churches of God, namely the image of our Lord and God and Saviour Jesus Christ, of our immaculate Lady the Holy Theotokos, and of the angels and all the saints. They are to be accorded the veneration of honor, not indeed the true worship paid to the divine nature alone, but in the same way, as this is accorded to the life-giving cross, the holy gospels, and other sacred offerings”
But, the emperors were still opposed to icons. Iconoclasm was not defeated yet. In fact, in 815 a meeting held in the cathedral of Hagia Sophia began the second period of icon destruction. On Palm Sunday in 815, a procession of monks for the famous Studion Monastery carried icons through the streets of Constantinople; but persecution of monks and destruction of icons was back again. Finally, in 843, the Empress Theodosia brought the icons back into the churches. A bishop, Methodius, who had been imprisoned and exiled during the persecution became Patriarch. On the first Sunday of Lent, 843, the veneration of icons was officially proclaimed at the Cathedral of Hagia Sophia in Constantinople. And, to this day, we celebrate the return of the icons with a great procession of icons on the “Sunday of Orthodoxy”.
To this day, Orthodox Christians continue to venerate icons, and to remember the godly men and women throughout history. Metropolitan Anthony of Sourozh suggests further: “By doing this we must not forget that it is not the icons of wood and of paint, but God who reveals Himself in the world. Each of us, all men, was created in the image of God. We are all living icons, and this lays upon us a great responsibility because an icon may be defaced, an icon may be turned into a caricature and into a blasphemy. And we must think of ourselves and ask ourselves: are we worthy, are we capable of being called icons, images of God?”
A synopsis of the absolutely critical data about each council:
|
Place |
Date |
Personalities |
Major Decisions |
|
1.Nicea |
325 |
St. Athanasius St. Nicholas Emperor Constantine Arius |
Condemned the Arian heresy, which taught that Christ was not truly God. Proclaimed first part of Creed. Established the date of Pascha.
|
|
2.Constantinople |
381 |
Emperor Theodosios St.Gregory Theologian St. Gregory of Nyssa |
Defined the teaching on the Holy Trinity, against the heresy of Macedonius, who said the Holy Spirit was inferior to the Father and the Son Completed the Creed. Declared the Bishop of Constantinople second only to the Bishop of Rome because Constantinople is New Rome
|
|
3.Ephesus |
431 |
Emp. Theodosius II St. Cyril of Alexandria Nestorius |
Defined the doctrine about the Theotokos against the heresy of Nestorius who said she was only “Christotokos”, splitting Jesus into two separate natures. Declared text of Creed finished and Forbade any future changes in it!
|
|
4.Chalcedon |
451 |
Eutyches Emperor Marcian Leo the Great of Rome |
Condemned heresy of the Monophysites, led by a monk named Eutyches, who said Christ was only God and not Man, also.
|
|
5.Constantinople |
533 |
Emperor Justinian |
Stated again teaching about 2 natures of Christ and condemned both the Monophysites and the Nestorian teachings of Bishops Theodore of Mopsuestia, Theodoret of Cyrus, and Ibas of Edessa. |
|
6.Constantinople |
670 |
Heraclius Constantine the Bearded Maximus Pope Martin I Pope Agatho |
Condemned the teachings of “Monothe- litism, which said Jesus’s divine nature made all the decisions and His human nature carried them out – another form of Monophysitism.
|
|
7.Nicea |
787 |
Empress Irene |
“Icons are to be venerated; God alone is to be served in faith.”
|
Quiz Questions:
Where was the First Ecumenical Council held? Nicea
Who called the First Ecumenical Council? Constantine
Whose teachings were condemned at the 1st Council? Arius
Which Council set the date of Pascha? First
Who tried to lead the Empire back to paganism? Julian the Apostate
Who made Christianity the official religion of the Empire? Theodosios the Great
Who said the Holy Spirit was inferior to the Father and Son? Macedonius
Who called the Second Ecumenical Council? Theodosios the Great
Where was the Second Council held? Constantinople
What was the New Rome? Constantinople
Which Council proclaimed the Patriarch of Constantinople Second
second only to Rome in importance?
Who called Mary “Christotokos”? Nestorius
Which Bishop opposed Nestorius at the 3rd Council? Cyril of Alexandria
Where was the Third Ecumenical Council held? Ephesus
Who did the 3rd Council proclaim that Mary is? Theotokos
Which heresy taught that Jesus was only divine? Monophysitism
Which city was the center of the Monophysite heresy? Alexandria, Egypt
Where was the 4th Council held? Chalcedon
What heresy was condemned by the 4th Council? Monophysitism
Who called the 5th Ecumenical Council? Justinian the Great
Where was the 5th Council held? Constantinople
Which two heresies were condemned by the 5th Council? Nestorian/Monophysite
Name two national churches that are Monophysite? Egypt, Armenia
Who stole the Holy Cross from Jerusalem? Persians
What Emperor defeated the Persians? Heraclius
What heresy states that Jesus’s divine nature makes all the Monothelitism
decisions and his human nature just carries them out?
Where was the 6th Ecumenical Council held? Constantinople
What heresy was condemned by the 6th Council? Monothelitism
Who called the 7th Ecumenical Council? Empress Irene
Where was the 7th Council held? Nicea
What veneration was upheld by the 7th Council? Icons
Who defended icons to the Arab caliph? John of Damascus
Which emperor began the destruction of icons? Leo
Which Empress led the Triumph of Orthodoxy? Empress Theodosia
Songs to help in learning:
NICEA
Sung by 'Constantine' to the tune of “Maria”
Nicea!
I just had brilliant idea!
The bishops I'll invite
And maybe they will write
A creed.
Nicea!
A council I'll call at Nicea.
By means of politics
I'll make those heretics
Concede!
Nicea!
Different doctrines they've been promoting;
Now at last we can solve it by voting.
Nicea! They'll never stop quoting Nicea!
Nicea!
The crown of my brilliant care-er
Because I'm Emperor,
They've all got to defer
To me!
Nicea!
I'll gather the whole ecclesia,
And suddenly they'll find
They all are of one mind.
You'll see!
Nicea!
I can hear theologians saying:
Let's all go, since the Emperor's paying!
Nicea!
For unity they will be praying...Nicea!
SUPERCHRISTOLOGICAL
To the tune of "Supercalafragalisticexpialadocius" ...
Um diddle diddle um diddle ay Um diddle diddle um diddle ay
Superchristological and Homoousiosis
Even though the sound of them is something quite atrocious
You can always count on them to anathemize your Gnosis
Superchristological and Homoousiosis
Um diddle diddle um diddle ay Um diddle diddle um diddle ay
Now Origen and Arius were quite a clever pair.
Immutable divinity make Logos out of air.
But then one day Saint Nicholas gave Arius a slap--
and told them if they can't recant, they ought to shut their trap!
[chorus] Oh, Superchristological and Homoousiosis...
One Prosopon, two Ousia are in one Hypostasis.
At Chalcedon this formula gave our faith its basis.
You can argue that you don't know what this means,
But don't you go and try to say there's a "Physis" in between!
[chorus] Oh, Superchristological and Homoousiosis...
Um diddle diddle um diddle ay Um diddle diddle um diddle ay
Now freedom and autonomy are something to be praised,
But when it comes to human sin, these words must be rephrased,
For Pelagius was too confident that we could work it out--
And Augustine said *massa damnata* is what it's all about.
[chorus] Oh, Superchristological and Homoousiosis...
Heresies are arguments that you might find attractive,
But just remember in this case the Church is quite reactive.
So play it safe and memorize these words we sing together,
'Cause in the end you'll find, my friend, that we may live forever.
[chorus] Oh, Superchristological and Homoousiosis…
Lyrics by Dan Idzikowski